Carbonic Acid / Bicarbonate Buffer Titration (H₂CO₃ + NaOH)
Physiological carbonate buffer system displaying clear separation between pKa₁ = 6.35 and pKa₂ = 10.33.
Strong Acid + Strong Base Titration (0.10 M HCl with 0.10 M NaOH)
Sharp vertical inflection spanning pH 4 to pH 10 centered at exact neutral equivalence pH = 7.00 (Veq = 25.00 mL).
Weak Acid + Strong Base Buffer & Equivalence (CH₃COOH + NaOH)
Demonstrates the Henderson-Hasselbalch buffer plateau at half-equivalence (V = 12.5 mL, pH = pKa = 4.76) and alkaline equivalence at pH = 8.73.
Triprotic Acid Stepwise Titration (H₃PO₄ + NaOH — 3 Equivalence Steps)
Visualizes sequential deprotonation H₃PO₄ → H₂PO₄⁻ → HPO₄²⁻ → PO₄³⁻ with distinct buffer plateaus at pKa₁=2.15, pKa₂=7.20, and pKa₃=12.35.
Weak Base Titrated with Strong Acid (0.10 M NH₃ + 0.10 M HCl)
Descending pH curve passing through the NH₃/NH₄⁺ buffer zone (pH = 9.25) to an acidic equivalence point at pH = 5.28 detected cleanly by Methyl Red.
Diprotic Oxalic Acid Titration (H₂C₂O₄ + NaOH)
Two-proton neutralization reaching first equivalence at 20.0 mL and full oxalate neutralization at 40.0 mL.
Carbonic Acid / Bicarbonate Buffer Titration (H₂CO₃ + NaOH)
Physiological carbonate buffer system displaying clear separation between pKa₁ = 6.35 and pKa₂ = 10.33.